al-Ghazali's Theory of Knowledge

This is a paper written as a partial fulfillment to the requirement of  History of Islamic Philosophy subject. Any citation is allowed as long as it does not breach the rules and ethics, and please do not plagiarise.

Abu Hamid Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Al-GhazÉlÊ was born in 1058, in Ùus, Persia, near the modern Meshad in eastern Iran. His family was Persian, of modest means, had a reputation for learning, and displayed an open tendency towards Sufism. Al-GhazÉlÊ’s father died while he was very young; a friend of his father’s who was also a mystic (Sufi) raised al-GhazÉlÊ and his brother (Latefah, 2001).

As he was a theologian, jurist, philosopher and Sufi mystic, al-GhazÉlÊ is a towering figure in the history of Islam and a pivotal thinker within its philosophical tradition. He is often blamed –somewhat hyperbolically- for bringing Islamic philosophy to an ultimate end (Groff & Leaman, 2007).

The eventful life of al-GhazÉlÊcan be divided into three major periods. The first was the period of learning; first in his home town of Ùus in Persia, then in Gurgan and finally in Nishapur. After the death of his teacher, ImÉm al-×aramayn Al-JuwaynÊ (the great Ash‛arite theologian), al-GhazÉlÊ moved to the court of Nizam al-Mulk, the powerful vizir of the Seljuq Sultans, who eventually appointed him head of the Nizamiyyah College at Baghdad in AH 484/AD 1091 (Kojiro, 2008).

The second period of al-GhazÉlÊ’s life was his brilliant career as the highest-ranking orthodox ‘doctor’ of the Islamic community in Baghdad (AH 484-8/AD 1091-5). This period was short but significant. During this time, as well as lecturing on Islamic jurisprudence at the College, he was also busy refuting heresies and responding to questions from all segments of the community (Kojiro, 2008).

During this productive period he wrote The Intentions of the Philosophers (MaqÉÎid al-FalÉsifa), which offered a clear, accurate exposition of the mashsha’i or Peripatetic philosophers (first and foremost, IbnSina). This was soon followed by his monumentally important Incoherence of the Philosophers (TahÉfut al-FalÉsifa), which critiqued twenty of their most problematic claims. (Groff & Leaman, 2007)

After four years of teaching in Baghdad, al-GhazÉlÊ underwent a profound spiritual crisis that led him to question the validity of both sense experience and reason and even temporarily rendered him unable to speak. Finally, he renounced his academic career and worldly ambitions and left Baghdad (Groff & Leaman, 2007).

This event marked the beginning of the third period of his life, that of retirement (AH 488-505/AD 1095-1111), but which also included a short period of teaching at the Nizamiyyah College in Nishapur. After leaving Baghdad, he wandered as a Sufi in Syria and Palestine before returning to Ùus, where he was engaged in writing his spiritual autobiography, The Deliverance from Error (al-Munqidh min al-ÖalÉl), Sufi practices and teaching his disciples until his death. (Kojiro, 2008)

In his work -Al-Munqidh min al-ÖalÉl-, al-GhazÉlÊ detailed his quest for certain knowledge about reality, which led him from theology to philosophy to the esotericism of the IsmÉ‛ilis to Sufi mysticism. Like his earlier engagement with philosophy, al-GhazÉlÊ’s mystical turn had wide-ranging and complementary effects. On the one hand, his sober, responsible appropriation of Sufism made mysticism respectable in the eyes of orthodox traditionalists; on the other, it helped to revitalize the stultified Islam of his time. Al-GhazÉlÊ’s magnum opus, Revival of the Religious Sciences (IÍya’ ‛UlËm al-DÊn) exemplifies this mutual enrichment (Groff & Leaman, 2007).

Knowledge : General Discussion

Knowledge is one of the most important themes in Islam. Islam put knowledge on the highest stage; a very special place. In Islamic point of view, knowledge is from God and revelation (wahy). It is proved by evidence from QurÉ’nic verse in SËrah al-ÑAlaq: 1:

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 This verse is the first revelation and commandment of Allah to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). This verse      stands for ‘reads in the name of Allah’. The term iqra’ or read connotes the importance of seeking knowledge for the sake of Allah. Knowledge is not a new thing, it is not an alien subject as knowledge has been known and shared even with the creation of the first man, Adam as. Allah taught Prophet Adam the name of the things in this world. It is mentioned on Surah al-Baqarah verse 31: “And He taught Adam the nature of all things: then He placed them before the Angels and said, ‘tell me the nature of these if ye are right’ ”.

Besides, Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) also concerned about knowledge. He highlighted the need and urgency of acquiring knowledge in several hadiths. The Prophet’s saying: ‘Knowledge is to be acquired from birth (cradle) to death’ and ‘Pursuit knowledge is an incumbent duty of man and woman’, shows that acquisition of knowledge is the duty of all believers (Qadir, 1988).

Greek philosophy was also concerned about knowledge and called them as epistemology which means science of knowledge.

Knowledge in Arabic term isÑilm and it directly means knowledge. The termÑilm has been used repetitively in QurÉ’n and ×adÊth as referring to knowledge. In addition, there are also several terms in QurÉ’n  that carry the meaning and concept of knowledge such as book (kitÉb), pen (qalam), ink (Groof & Leaman, 2007).

The wordÑilm is also one of the terms used to refer to Islamic Philosophy besides ma’rifah, hikmah, falsafah and kalam. Islamic philosophers were also talked about knowledge, for instance al-FÉrabÊ who was famous with his classification of knowledge. Then, al-KindÊ also declared that knowledge is virtue and the final aim of philosophy is morality and man can have knowledge of right and wrong through reason (Majid,1983).

Al-GhazÉlÊ is one of the philosophers who has a  deep interest in the subject of knowledge.  He began his famous writing; IhyÉ’ ÑUlËm al-DÊn, with the chapter; The Book of knowledge (KitÉb al-ÑIlm). In the introduction part, he stated that he opened his book with a chapter about knowledge (bÉb al-Ñilm) because the harvest of good knowledge is to fear God and become pious (Latefah, 2001). Al-Ghazali (in Gianotti, 2000) wrote:

              “I began the whole thing with the Book of Knowledge because it is of the utmost importance. First of all, I do this in order that I make known the knowledge that is devoted to the words of His Prophet (May God bless him and grant him salvation), the [kind of knowledge that are] required to be sought. (To this effect), the Prophet (May God bless him and grant him salvation) said, ‘the pursuit of knowledge is an obligation for every Muslim’.[Secondly, I begin with this book] in order that I may distinguish the beneficial knowledge from the harmful, since the Prophet (May God bless him and grant him salvation) said, “I seek refuge in God from knowledge that has no benefit,” [All this is] in order that I correct the present generation in their inclination away from the way of what is right, in their willingness to be duped by glimmering phantoms and in their [total] contentment sciences [that treat] the outer husk[rather than] the essential core.”

Al-Ghazali’s Theory of Knowledge

            Al-Ghazali’s magnification of knowledge is obviously seen as he positioned The Book of Knowledge as the first, opening chapter of Ihya’ Ulum al-Din. This Book of Knowledge comprises of seven chapters; among them on the branches of knowledge. Al-Ghazali did not discuss on branches of knowledge just in this book, but also in his other writings, for instance al-Risalat al-Laduniyyah and al-Munqidh.

            In discussing the meaning of knowledge, al-Ghazali was in the same stance with his notable teacher, Imam al-Haramayn (Hamid, 2010). Knowledge, for al-Ghazali, is hard to be defined, but it could be explained by means of disjunction (qismah) and resemblance (mithal)      ( Hamid, 2010; Mustafa, 1996). By disjunction it means classification, and by resemblance it connotes examples and references to other things to sign similarities. Al-Ghazali has given an example of scent of musk on what he meant by knowledge. He stated that the knowledge one has of the scent of a musk, cannot be defined, but one can distinguish it from other musk, can classify the musk in  specific characteristics, and can give the example of other scent which is similar to the scent of the musk (Mustafa, 1996). In his Mi`yar, al-Ghazali stated that “there is no meaning of knowledge except that of its being an image (mithal) that arrives in the soul, which conforms to that which is an image in sense perception, namely, the object known” (Hamid, 2010).

            Latter scholars have synthesized al-Ghazali’s classification of sciences or knowledge into four divisions, namely; 1) theoretical and practical parts, 2) presential (`Ilm Mukashafah)and acquired (`Ilm Husuli) knowledge, 3) religious (`Ulum Shar`iyyah) and intellectual (`Ulum Aqliyyah) sciences, and 4) individual (Fard `Ain) and community (Fard Kifayah) obligation (Osman, 2006).    In this paper, the discussion will be mainly on the third division of al-Ghazali’s classification of sciences; religious and intellectual sciences.

            This division was established upon the distinction in sources of the sciences. It is quite clear to note that religious sciences’ sources are Quran, Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) or prophetic tradition, Ijma’ or consensus of the Community, and athar al-sahabah or the traditions of the Companions as al-Ghazali wrote in Ihya’, (knowledge) “which have been acquired from the prophets and are not arrived at either by reason, like arithmetic, or experimentation, like medicine, or by hearing, like language (p. 30), while intellectual sciences are derived from human reasoning and intellectual process and is aided by sense perception.

            Both religious sciences and intellectual sciences have been put under the larger branch of community obligation (fard kifayah) in Ihya’. Unlike any Western philosophers who separate between Divine knowledge and rational knowledge, al-Ghazali integrates between these two knowledge or sciences.

            Religious sciences, in al-Ghazali’s classification, are then divided into “four sub-categories according to their importance in practicing religious teaching” (Latefah, 2001, p.106); science of fundamental principles (usul), science of branches or derived principles (furu`), auxiliary (muqaddimat), and supplementary (mutammimat). The first category, usul, talks about the fundamental principles of religion and the sources of religious sciences. The fundamental principles of religion are science of Divine Unity (`ilm al-tawhid), science of prophethood, eschatology and science of the sources of religious knowledge (Osman, 2006). The four sources of religious sciences as listed by al-Ghazali are Quran, Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) or prophetic tradition, Ijma’ or consensus of the Community, and athar al-sahabah or the traditions of the Companions (Nabih, 1962).

            The second category, furu`, consists of the sciences of the principles that are derived from the sources of religious knowledge. There are three principles in this category: 1) science of man’s obligation to God, i.e. religious rites and worship (`ibadah), 2) science of man’s obligation to society, i.e. transaction, contractual obligations especially family law (mu`amalah) , and 3) science of man’s obligation to own soul, i.e. moral qualities (`ilm akhlaq) (Osman, 2006).  All these sciences or knowledge are based on the revelation of Almighty God, and also the traditions and examples given by Prophet (pbuh) and his Companions.

            The third category, muqaddimat, is the important component in studying and understanding religious sciences (Nabih, 1962). It comprises of linguistic science and syntax, and science of writing (Osman, 2006). Without this knowledge, religious sciences would be hardly learned and comprehended.

            The fourth category in religious sciences is mutammimat, which act as the supplementary knowledge in further understanding and mastering religious sciences. Divisions in this category include Quranic sciences including the science of interpretation, the sciences of the prophetic traditions such as the science of authoritative transmission, the science of principles of jurisprudence (usul al-fiqh), and biography of the illustrious men and Companions (Osman, 2006).

            On the other hand, intellectual sciences are categorized into two; enumeration of intellectual sciences, and ethico-legal status of intellectual sciences (Osman, 2006). On the enumeration category, al-Ghazali proposed four types of intellectual sciences; 1)mathematics, which are arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and astrology, and music, 2) logics, 3) physics or the natural sciences, which are medicine, meteorology, mineralogy, alchemy, and 4) metaphysics, which includes ontology, knowledge of the divine essence, attributes and activities, and science of prophecy (Osman, 2006). The intellectual sciences were also viewed in three statuses that are linked with ethics. The first status, praiseworthy (mahmud) applied to the sciences that are essential to the community’s welfare, “on whose knowledge the activities of this life depend such as medicine and arithmetic” (Nabih, 2006). The second status, blameworthy (madhmuh) sciences are the sciences which have no benefit to the community and individual, and may also impose harm to the practitioners and others, for instance talisman and witchcraft. These sciences are in fact contradicting Islamic values (Osman, 2006). The third status, permissible (mubah) sciences are the neutral sciences that do not contradict Islamic values and can be tailored to the Islamic values, for instance philosophy and poetry. Al-Ghazali “did not agree with visual art and images, however, because of the potential for idolization (Latefah, 2001, p.106)

Al-Ghazali’ Influence on Later Philosopher

            As we have the later philosopher in the history of Islamic philosophy, Qutb al-Din was influenced by the former philosophers, to name some; al-Farabi and al-Ghazali. In this regard, the discussion will focus in depth on al-Ghazali’s influence on  al-Shirazi.

            Qutb a-Din al-Shirazi (636/1236-710/1311), one of the highly esteemed figures of the intellectual life of the Eastern lands of Islam during the late 7th/13th and early 8th/14th century, authored two major works in the field of philosophy that became popular- a commentary on Shihab al-Din al-Suhrawardi’s (executed 587/1991) Hikmat al-ishraq, that is written in Arabic, dedicated to the vizier Jamal al-Din A’li b. Muhammad al-Dastjirdani and completed in 694/1295, and an independent work written in Persian, Durrat al-taj li-ghurrat al-dubaj that was completed between 693/1294 and 705/1306 (Reza & Sabine, 2004).

            In the Durrat al-taj, Qutb al-Din presents the following classification of the sciences: the philosphical sciences (‘ulum hikmiy) and the non-philosophical sciences (‘ulum ghayr hikmiy). The philosophical sciences were divided into the theoretical (nazariy) and the practical (‘amaliy). The theoretical philosophical science consists of metaphysics, mathematics, natural sciences, and logic. These theory was influenced by al-Ghazali’s theory of knowledge under his divisions of intellectual sciences. For practical philosophical sciences, it was consists of ethics, economics, and politics (Osman, 2006). 

In his theoretical divisions, al-Shirazi divided into four branches of sciences which is metaphysics, mathematics, natural sciences and logic. For his metaphysics, it was consists of two major parts, that is divine science (ilm-i ilahi) and first philosophy (falsafah-i ula), and at least three minor parts. The three minor parts mentioned by him are the science of prophethood (nubuwwah), the science of religious authority (imamah) and eschatology. This inclusion of minor branches was a feature of al-Ghazali’s religious sciences (Osman, 2006).

            For mathematics sciences, he divides into four major branches and nine minor ones; major branches consist of geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music. Meanwhile his minor branches consist of optics, algebra, the science of weights, surveying, the science of calculation, mechanical engineering, the science of the balance, the science of astronomical tables and calendars, and the science of irrigation. His major branches were totally inspired by al-Ghazali’s mathematics division but not the minor one since al-Ghazali did not use the same concept as al-Shirazi. Al-Shirazi classified his sciences using his own concept, major and minor. It was described that al-Shirazi’s concept of minor branches of mathematics is based “upon the consideration that those branches are subdivisions of the major branches” (Osman, 2006, p.253).

Besides that, al-Shirazi’s natural sciences were also divided into major and minor branches. But al-Ghazali’s natural sciences only consist of medicine, meteorology, mineralogoy, and alchemy. Under al-Shirazi, both meteorology and mineralogy fall under major branches. While alchemy and medicine fall under minor branches. Basically he was inspired by al-Ghazali’s branches of natural sciences but he tends to divide them according to his own concept. “In his division of the science of logic, al-Shirazi follows the traditional Muslim Perapatetic division into the nine books of the Organon” (Osman, 2006, p.256).

            In conclusion, al-Ghazali is one of the most prominent philosophers in Muslim and Western intellectual world. He has given enormous contributions to the intellectual world, including the theory of knowledge that he has proposed. He is also the first philosopher to integrate between religious and intellectual sciences. Based upon al-Ghazali’s discussion on knowledge, it can be seen that he has outlined a very great structure of epistemology, including the ethics and etiquette of seeking knowledge. The practicality of its theory should be taken into consideration and applied especially in this modern world, to develop and strengthen the intellectual endeavor of Muslim community, thus cultivate the intellectuals who will serve the Ummah.

Reference

Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1962). The book of knowledge. (Nabih Amin Faris, Trans.). New Delhi: Islamic Book Service. (Original work published 1096-1097)

Fakhri, M. (1983).A history of Islamic philosophy. New York: Columbia University Press.

Gianotti, T. J. (2000). Imam abu hamid al-ghazali’s , reviving the religious sciences: A working translation. Unpublished Manuscript. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University.

Groff, P.S. & Leaman, O. (2007). Islamic philosophy a-z. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Hamid Fahmy Zarkasyi (2010). Al-ghazali’s concept of causality: With reference to his interpretations of reality and knowledge. Kuala Lumpur : IIUM Press, International Islamic University Malaysia.

Kojiro Nakamura (2008). Biography of abu hamid, al-ghazÉlÊ.Retrieved on 15^thApril 2012 from http://ghazali.org/articles/gz1.htm. 

Latefah Alkanderi (2001). Exploring education in Islam: Al-ghazÉlÊ’s model of the master-pupil relationship applied to educational relationship within the Islamic family. Unpublished Manuscript. College of Education: The Pennsylvania State University.

Mustafa Abu Sway (1996). Al-ghazzaliyy: A study in Islamic epistemology. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka

Osman Bakar (2006). Classification of knowledge in Islam: A study in Islamic philosophies of science. Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization.

Qadir, C. A. (1988). Philosophy and science in the Islamic world. New York: Croom Helm.

Reza Pourjavady & Sabine Schidtke (2004). Qutb al-din al-shirazi’s (634/1236 – 710/1311) durrat al-taj and its sources : studies on qutb al-din al-shirazi. Journal Asiatique, 292    (1-2), p. 311-330. 


* This paper has been written by a group of four students from an international university in Malaysia and published here by one of the group members.